1 |
Author(s):
Shitu, A., Tadda, M.A., Danhassan, A.U..
Page No : 1-12
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IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT USING SMART CONTROL SYSTEMS: A REVIEW
Abstract
Management and control of water resources is an issue on the rise around the globe, as agriculture lead other activities in terms of percentage usage of water whereby more than 50% is wasted due to evaporation as a result of many factors like; inappropriate irrigation structure design or installation, maintenance or poor scheduling of the structures. This review on “Smart Control Systems for Water Management in Agriculture” is in a way that different approaches and methods of using smart controller and sensors were studied as well as some mathematical relations. When automatic irrigation systems are coupled with new technologies such as; soil moisture sensors (SMSs); rain sensors (RSs); evapotranspiration (ET) – based controllers, wind sensors; web-GIS and remote sensing wireless controllers together with some soft computing techniques like artificial neural networks (ANN), genetic algorithm (GA), fuzzy logic (FL) could lead to optimum utilization of irrigation water resources while maintaining the quality of crops and other agricultural produce. Smart irrigation technology and techniques applications are not only limited to agriculture but also to managing of landscapes and lawns to ensure precision agriculture.
2 |
Author(s):
Yayock, E.S., Afolabi,A., Isiaka, M., Mohammed, U.S..
Page No : 13-20
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EFFECT OF MOISTURE CONTENT ON SELECTED PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SAMSORG 43 VARIETY OF SORGHUM (SORGHUM BICOLOR)
Abstract
Some design related physical properties of Samaru Sorghum 43 (SAMSORG 43) were determined as a
function of moisture content, within the moisture range of 8.69 - 16.92 % (db) being the ranges for threshing,
cleaning and storage of sorghum. The length, width, thickness and geometric mean diameter of the Samaru
Sorghum 43, increased linearly from 4.81 to 5.11, 4.15 to 4.70, 2.90 to 3.49 and 3.89 to 4.34 mm, respectively
as moisture content increases from 8.69 - 16.92 %. The sphericity, surface area, seed volume, thousand kernel
mass and porosity also increased linearly from 83.98 to 87.87 %, 0.41 to 0.59 mm2, 0.32 to 0.47 mm3, 54.33 to
43.14 g and 18.98 to 22.40 %, respectively. Bulk density and true density decreased linearly with increase in
moisture content from 1.11 to 0.97 and 1.37 to 1.25 g/cm3, respectively. The static angle of repose varied from
19.73 to 26.68 and 18.95 to 25.05 on plywood and galvanized steel surfaces.The coefficients of static friction
of the sorghum increased the linearly against surfaces of three structural materials, namely, plywood (0.43 -
0.53), galvanized iron sheet (0.33 - 0.53) and plastic (0.35 - 0.41) as the moisture content increased from 8.69
to 16.92 %.
3 |
Author(s):
Ahmad, K., Abdullahi, Z. M..
Page No : 21-27
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MECHANICAL DESIGN A OF A REMOTE CONTROLLED PRECISION FERTILIZER-APPLICATION MOBILE ROBOT (FERTILEBOT)
Abstract
The research is on design of a remote controlled Precision Fertilizer-Application Mobile Robot. The choice of
this area is facilitated by the fact that agriculture is one of the aspects that are necessary for life on the planet
earth. Most of our local farmers depend on the labour intensive approach to farming, this work is therefore
meant to provide effective farming machine for the local farmers. The general design of the robot is divided
into three parts: the design of the physical mechanical framework, the design of the wireless remote control
subsystem of the Fertilebot, practical development of the designed robot and conducting practical
environmental tests to model and validate its behaviour. This paper (part one) presents design of Fertilebot’s
mechanical system. The selection of Fertilebot’s dimensions, details on type of movements in the operation, the
selection of central drive motor, the steering control motor and determination of Battery size are shown. The
gearbox design, design for torque conversion are shown. The rear shaft bearings design and Fertilebot’s
frame design are described. The detailed design of bearings in front wheels and design of the holder of
fertilizer application mechanism are described. Finally, detailed engineering drawings are produced. The
major obtained results from the design include the following. Central drive motor Torque is found to be
11.90Nm, Central drive motor Power calculated is 623.08W (1 horse power, 24V is used), Steering control
motor Torque calculated is 1.31Nm and power of the steering control motor is obtained as 23.58W (45W, 24V
is used). Calculated fatigue strength is 384.9MPa (which is within safe range of 317.5MPa – 490MPa) and the
designed speed of the shaft is 50rpm (critical speed is 926rpm).
4 |
Author(s):
Abdullahi Z. M., Ahmad K..
Page No : 28-36
|
DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF HIGH GAIN LOG PERIODIC DIPOLE ARRAY ANTENNA
Abstract
Wireless communication has a tremendous growth over the past few decades, but with the increasing
demand to transmit high quality data, antennas with wide bandwidth are required. Multiband antennas are
a solution to this problem, but they cannot cover a large number of bands, antennas with compact size
which are designed to operate for the entire frequency band of a given system are desirable in such a
scenario. Hence, a Log-Periodic Dipole Array (LPDA) antenna has been designed to obtain a relatively
high amount of gain 12 dBi, this is above the usual LPDA antenna. This is as a result of employing a
technique of design where a significant number of elements of the antenna are made to operate together at
a given frequency; this was achieved by placing the elements in a close proximity throughout the boom of
the antenna. A 4NEC2 Antenna Modeller software was used for the design and simulation of the antenna.
The antenna was designed to operate in the UHF region thereby making it suitable for Global Positioning
Satellite (GPS) reception. The frequency of its operation lies between 1227MHz and 1576MHz. The
spacing constant, σ and length constant, τ are 0.183 and 0.964 respectively.
5 |
Author(s):
Jibril, Y., Kunya, A. B..
Page No : 37-51
|
OPTIMAL SITING AND SIZING OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION USING MIX-INTEGER GENETIC ALGORITHM
Abstract
Exponential growth in Distributed Generation (DG) penetration to low voltage (LV) distribution networks has been observed in recent years. This huge penetration of DG can be advantageous in light of environmental, economic and technical aspects when properly planned. However, if these systems are not appropriately planned, the reliability and stability of the network will be endangered or quality of the supply will be dreadfully jeopardized. Among the measures taken to avoid such is determining the optimal location and size of each DG unit in the distribution network. DG optimal placement is a non-linear, multi-objective, constrained and highly combinatorial optimization problem. In this study, an analytical approach coupled with meta-heuristic optimization technique; Mix-Integer Genetic Algorithm (GA) are employed to optimally determine the best locations and sizes of various types of DGs and electric vehicle (EV) charging stations in primary distribution network. The sole objective of the proposed technique is to minimize the power loss and improve bus voltage profile. Three well-known IEEE test distribution systems; 15, 33 and 69-bus systems modelled in MATLAB environment are used for testing the proposed technique. The simulation results demonstrate that the proposed approach is capable of finding both the optimal site and size of DG units simultaneously and accurately. From the optimized solution, the power loss and voltage deviation are reduced by almost 79% and 91%.
6 |
Author(s):
Maina, M. M, A. A. Aliyu.
Page No : 52-57
|
WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT FOR IRRIGATION IN KAFIN-CHIRI DAM, KANO
Abstract
Monitoring of water quality especially for irrigation is often ignored in the operation and maintenance of irrigation water sources. This research may serve as a preliminary study to provide baseline information that may direct future water quality assessment for monitoring quality. The water samples from Kafin-chiri irrigation were assessed for their quality in terms of its potential to irrigation. Standard chemical analysis procedure were adopted in the chemical analysis of the water samples. The results revealed that the water is slightly acidic with a pH of 6.09. The concentration of electric conductivity, chloride, sodium, calcium, magnesium, and sulphate recorded in the water samples lies between the permissible limits set by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) standard for irrigation water. The concentration of carbonate, bicarbonate, and nitrate were also within the standard. The results of the pH and EC Shows that the water quality status of Kafin-Chiri did not constitutes any hazardous threat to irrigation. It is therefore safe, suitable and recommended for irrigation but intermittent assessment is highly encourage to track down any sudden changes in quality. Results from this study can serve as a baseline for tracking record for quality assessment of irrigation water in the study area.
7 |
Author(s):
Murtala Umar, Gambo Haruna Yunusa, Ado Yusuf Abdulfatah.
Page No : 58-67
|
EFFECT OF CURING PERIOD ON THE LIME FIXATION OF SOME RESIDUAL SOILS
Abstract
Lime has been successfully used as a construction material in many civil engineering constructions, particularly in road constructions. Its economy and ease of handling during construction are the basic factors influencing widespread usage in soil improvement. Hence, for efficient lime stabilization application, lime that would be added to the soil must satisfy an affinity of the soil for lime which is referred to as lime fixation. Thus, this study evaluates the effect of soil composition on the lime fixation of some residual soils. Two residual soil samples were collected from different locations and their mineralogical compositions were determined. The chemical compositions of the lime were determined using XRF analysis. Lime contents of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 and 12% by dry weight of the soils were used to determine the initial consumption of lime and lime fixation capacities of the two residual soils. Similar percentages were used to evaluate the effects of lime on the strength and plasticity of the soil samples. The results obtained indicated a general increase in the strength, plastic limit and liquid limit of the two residual soils as the lime contents increase up to 5% and 6% lime contents for samples 1 and 2, respectively. Hence, appropriate lime contents that satisfy the initial consumption and fixation capacities are 5% and 6% for samples 1 and 2, respectively. Hence, the higher the clay content of a soil the more lime is required to satisfy its lime fixation capacity.
8 |
Author(s):
Murtala Umar.
Page No : 68-75
|
EFFECT OF CURING TIME ON MICROBIALLY STABILIZED RESIDUAL SOIL
Abstract
Microbial Calcite Precipitation (MCP) is a technique that utilizes the concept of microbial involvements in calcium carbonate precipitation within the soil matrix structure. This leads to the cementation of the soil particles and consequently improving the strength and stiffness of the soil. In this study microbial carbonate precipitations were induced in tropical residual soil via urea hydrolysis and effects of curing time on the strength improvement after treatment was determined. An isolate of urease active strain named Klebsiella pneumoniae was used to precipitates calcite into the soil with the aim of improving the engineering properties of the soil. Bacteria concentrations of 1.5×105 cfu/ml and 2.9×106 cfu/ml and 0.5 M cementation reagents concentrations were used to evaluate the shear strength of the soil. Treatment durations of 24, 36, 48 and 60 hours were used in the study and biotreated specimens were cured for 1, 3, 7, 14 and 21 days. The results obtained indicated that higher bacteria concentrations of 2.9×106 cfu/ml provided better strength improvement than the lower concentrations of 1.5×105 cfu/ml. Likewise, the strength also increases proportionally with the increase in curing time up to 14 days. Hence, the optimum curing period of biotreated residual soil was found to be 14 days. The results obtained revealed that the higher the amount of calcite precipitated the more the strength improvement up to 48 hours treatment duration.
9 |
Author(s):
Dibal, J. M., Yusufari, M. A, Audu, I..
Page No : 76-85
|
GROWTH AND YIELD RESPONSE OF COWPEA TO FURROW IRRIGATION METHODS AND MULCHING AT ZUGACHI IRRIGATION SITE, KANO, NIGERIA
Abstract
This study explored the effect of irrigation water management alternatives on the performance of cowpea during the dry season of 2015/2016 at Zugachi irrigation site, Gabasawa, Kano State Nigeria). The trial involved three furrow irrigation methods (Fixed, alternate and every-other-furrow irrigation methods), four mulching (grasses, wood shaving, polythene and Bare soil (control)) replicated 3 times. The combinations of these factors had translated into 36 treatments, and were laid out in a Randomised Complete Block Deign (RCBD) arrangement. Both the growth and yield parameters of cowpea were influenced by furrow irrigation methods and mulching. The longest numbers of days to 50% germination (5 days) was observed in plots irrigated using the every-other-furrow irrigation method; and the Fixed furrow irrigation method resulted into the least duration (3.92 days) to attain 50% germination. The duration to 50% germination, flowering and maturity were highest on bare soils. The values of all growth parameters were highest in plots irrigated using Alternate furrow irrigation method, followed by fixed furrow irrigation method; and the use of every-other-furrow irrigation method translated into the least values of the growth parameters. The use of fixed furrow irrigation produced highest yield (1217.83 kg/ha) relative to the least yield of 927.42 kg/ha that was observed from every-other-furrow irrigation method. The Polyethylene mulching produced the highest cowpea yield (1168.11 kg/ha), while the least yield came from the Bare (Unmulched) plots. There was also a significant increase in number of pod per plant, pod length, weight of pod per plant and yield of cowpea in all mulched plots relative to control plots. The findings advocated for the need for adopting either the fixed or the alternate furrow irrigation method to benefit from their resource-saving characteristics while boosting and sustaining irrigated farming profits. Mulching, and especially the Polyethylene and grass mulching remarkably perked up the growth, yield and yield quality of cowpea.
10 |
Author(s):
Umar, Ibrahim Khalil, Bashir, Samir.
Page No : 86-94
|
WORK ZONE SAFETY AUDIT FOR KANO-MAIDUGURI ROAD
Abstract
The increase in traffic flow necessitates the need to improve the existing roadways and to build additional highways hence creating more work zones. Work zone safety audit help stakeholders to improve safety of workers, drivers and other vulnerable road user in the work zones by finding the potential hazards associated with the construction sites at early stage and proposing both long term and short term counter measures. Assessment of the elements of warning signs, channelizing devices, internal traffic control, work zone configuration, worker safety and road side safety of the work zone studied gives a score of 5.97/10 indicating that the overall effectiveness of the work zone is average. The potential hazards with very high risk level along Kano-Maiduguri road are speeding and aggressive driving, dangerous flagging, misuse of TTCD, non-compliance with signs by the road users, unprotected work area, confusing signs, and use of non-retro-reflective devices. The safety of the work zone can be increased by proper work zone configuration, worker training, regular maintenance of TTCD and increased enforcement.
11 |
Author(s):
Auwalu M. Abdullahi, Mustapha Muhammad, Amir. A. Bature.
Page No : 96-105
|
HYBRID CONTROL OF A 2-D CRANE SYSTEM WITH HOISTING
Abstract
This paper proposes a hybrid controller which combines zero vibration derivative (ZVD) shaper with fuzzy logic control (FLC) technique for load hoisting control of a 2-D crane. Crane control is a challenging area in control as it is difficut to control unwanted payload sway motion, which results in inaccurate positioning of the payload at the target area. In this work, ZVD is designed to minimise payload sway motion while, FLC is designed for trolley positioning. Two different approaches are used for the design of the ZVD, first the ZVD is design with parameters of the system at maximum hoisting length and secondly it is designed with system’s parameters at average travel hoisting length (ATL) to improve the performance of the sway reduction. Mean absolute error (MAE) of the payload sway is used as performance index of the controllers. The MAE values of the sway motion for crane with load hoisting without controller, with FLC, with FLC and ZVD and with FLC and ATL are found to be 11.3597, 3.5583, 2.0853 and 1.3508 degrees respectively. The simulation results revealed that the proposed hybrid control technique achieved precise payload position with acceptable payload sway reduction. Combined FLC and ATL gives better performance as compared to FLC alone and FLC and ZVD.
12 |
Author(s):
Mustapha Muhammad.
Page No : 106-114
|
LINEAR MATRIX INEQUALITY-BASED STATE FEEDBACK CONTROL OF A GANTRY CRANE SYSTEM
Abstract
This paper presents a state feedback controller design for a gantry crane. The controller is designed via pole placement in a Linear Matrix Inequality (LMI) region. Firstly, a stabilization condition which constrains the closed-loop poles of the system to be located in an LMI region is formulated in form of linear matrix inequalities (LMIs). The stabilization conditions guaranteed the system stability and gives satisfied transient performance. Based on the formulated stabilization conditions, a state feedback tracking controller is proposed for trolley position tracking and swing angle control of the gantry crane system. The performance of the proposed controller was investigated via simulations. The simulation results showed the proposed control scheme reduces the maximum payload oscillation by 48.28% when compared to PID control Scheme.
13 |
Author(s):
Dahiru, H., Kundiri, A.M..
Page No : 115-123
|
INFLUENCE OF COMPACTION ENERGY ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF RICE HUSK ASH TREATED BLACK COTTON SOIL
Abstract
This paper presents an experimental study of the effect of Compaction energy (Standard Proctor SP and Modified Proctor MP) on Compressive strength of Rice Husk Ash treated Black Cotton Soil. Eighty (80) different samples of Black Cotton Soil (BCS) treated with 5, 10 and 15 % Rice Husk Ash (RHA) were prepared using two compactive efforts of Standard Proctor (SP) and Modified Proctor (MP) at 2 and 4% on the dry and wet sides of optimum moisture contents (OMC). According to the results the soil was classified as A-7-5(18) by American Association of State Highway and Transport Officials (AASHTO) classification system and Silt of high plasticity (MH) in accordance with Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). Addition of RHA contents resulted in to an improvement in the index properties of the soil; increase in Maximum dry density from 1.41 to 1.53 Mg/m3 and decrease in OMC from 28.8 to 18%. The increase in RHA contents up to 10 % brought about significant improvement in the strength of the soil specimens from 67.2 to 299.6 kN/m2 and from 95.4 to 332.4 kN/m2 for SP and MP compaction energies respectively. This improvement is mostly on the dry sides than on the wet sides of the optimum. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) carried out on the test results depicts the statistical significance of the compactive efforts in the improvement of the strength, with more influence on the modified proctor than that of standard proctor.
14 |
Author(s):
Abdulrahman Rufai, Hassan A. Bashir.
Page No : 124-133
|
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK-BASED MODEL OF AJAOKUTA STEEL THERMAL POWER PLANT
Abstract
This paper develops the identification of thermal power plant using artificial neural network (ANN) technique taking Ajaokuta steel power plant as a case study. The thermal power plant, built in 1987, has a full capacity of 60MW at a frequency of 50Hz. Data was collected from the Ajaokuta steel power plant for the input/output parameters of the main components for the identification process. This include governor valve position, superheated steam flow rate to the turbine, turbine blades torque as well as the frequency of the generated electrical power. Firstly, identification models for the governor, turbine and generator were separately developed. To simplify the process, each model is treated as a single input single output (SISO) system. Then, the thermal power plant was modelled as a whole taking frequency as the input and generated electrical power as the output. The obtained data is used to train a feedforward neural network with one hidden layer in Matlab environment. An exhaustive search routine was developed to control the choice of the architecture (training function and number of layers of neurons) for the feedforward ANN models during the identification process. This optimizes the developed ANN model for every component of the power plant. A correlation analysis on the inputs/output dependencies reveals 95% confidence. To validate the developed ANN models, dynamic linear models were estimated using ARMAX method. Similarly, the order of each ARMAX model was chosen to minimize the mean square error. Compared to the ARMAX models, the accuracy of the proposed ANN models outweigh that of their numerical counterparts by 6.32, 0, 99.82, and 3.09 percent for the governor, turbine, generator and the complete plant respectively. Thus, the identified ANN models provide better representation of the thermal power plant.
15 |
Author(s):
Sahanunu Dahiru, Hassan A. Bashir.
Page No : 134-140
|
ASSESSMENT OF AN IMPROVED WIENER II PATH LOSS MODEL FOR SIGNAL PROPAGATION ON CONCRETE WALLS
Abstract
Path loss analysis of Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11x) signal propagation plays significant role in the plan and function of wireless local area networks (WLAN) applications. Path loss models are crucial in the planning of wireless network as they facilitate survey and mapping of a site for RF installation via simulation; thus, avoiding tedious physical measurements and serve as a guide to a network designer in determining the best location for network devices. Among others, path loss depends upon signal frequency, distance, antenna height and other environmental (medium) characteristics. Frequency and distance are the most important parameters for path loss calculation. This paper develops a modified Wiener II path loss model suitable for assessing Wi-Fi signal propagation through concrete wall. It analyses the effect of distance and frequency on the received signal quality. Empirically, a computer system running the inSSIDer software (a Wi-Fi network scanner application) was used to measure the received signal strength from a Wi-Fi signal source (access point); the measured results were recorded at every 10 m interval between the source (Wi-Fi Access point) and the destination (a personal computer). For the theoretical results, Wiener II model was simulated in Matlab and the result was also recorded. A comparison of both the empirical and theoretical results revealed that the original Wiener II model consistently deviates from the measured results by an average of 1.11%. The Wiener II model was modified by tuning its parameters based on the medium characteristics. The improved Wiener II model estimates the measured path loss with an average deviation of only 0.38% from the measured results.
16 |
Author(s):
Rafukka, Ibrahim Abdullahi.
Page No : 141-150
|
ANTHROPOMETRIC COMPARISON OF NIGERIAN MALE ADULTS AND CRASH TEST DUMMIES
Abstract
Crash test dummies, otherwise known as anthropometric test devices (ATD), are surrogates used in the
evaluation of vehicle safety performance to predict injury risk during crash. ATDs such as Hybrid III
dummy that are applied currently in automotive crash testing were produced based on U.S. adult
anthropometry. The aim of this study is to assess the difference between the anthropometric dimensions of
Nigerian male adults and ATDs based on the reported data in the literature. Anthropometric dimensions of
adults from three major ethnic groups of Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba were utilized in the study. Comparison
was made between stature and weight of Nigerian male adult and 50th percentile (midsize male) and 95th
percentile (large male) Hybrid III dummy. The results revealed critical difference varying from 10.4% to
23.4% for body weight and 1.5% to 3.5% for the stature. It was also found that 50th percentile Hybrid III
dummy corresponds to 77th, 76th, and 67th percentiles in stature for Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba adults
respectively. 95th percentiles Hybrid III dummy corresponds to 99th, 99th and 100th percentiles in body
weight for Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba adults respectively. The comparison shows that ATDs are not
representing Nigerian population. This lead to different injury outcomes in vehicle crash and vehicles
tested using the ATDs might not be safe for Nigerian male adults. Car designers and manufactures have to
consider the anthropometric differences in future designs to ensure that vehicle used by Nigerians are
evaluated using crash dummies that truly represent the population.
17 |
Author(s):
Abdulkarim A. Oloyede, Nasir Faruk.
Page No : 151-158
|
SPECTRUM AUCTION FOR DYNAMIC SPECTRUM ACCESS WITH ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Abstract
Scarcity of radio spectrum as a result of the increase in the use of the radio spectrum led to the concept of dynamic spectrum access. This work proposes a generic pricing algorithm for dynamic spectrum management in soft real time. A sealed bid auction with reserve price is proposed with the use of the concept of green payment to serve as an incentive to prioritise power efficient users. Dynamic spectrum access allows users of the radio spectrum to gain access on short term basis to the unused radio spectrum. The paper examines the need for a reserve price, its benefit to both the wireless service provider and the wireless users. Our results show how discriminatory pricing with the green payment would help energy efficient users to gain access to the spectrum at the expense of the non-efficient user. We concluded that the green payment could reduce the amount of energy saved in the system.
18 |
Author(s):
Odewole, M.M., Sunmonu, M.O., Falua K.J., Aina, S.O..
Page No : 159-167
|
NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS OF CHEESE MADE FROM A DEVELOPED CHEESE MAKING MACHINE
Abstract
This study focused on the evaluation of the nutritional compositions of cheese produced from a developed
cheese-making machine. The electrically-powered cheesemaking machine was capable of reducing the
drudgery, extended time and unhygienic characteristics of the traditional/local method of cheese production
among medium and small scale cheese producers. The major components of the machine were the main
frame, cheese processing and compression chambers. The processing chamber consists of the heating
component, temperature regulator and a manually-driven stirrer. The compression chamber consists of a
stirring rod and a perforated screen made of stainless steel. The performance evaluation of the machine
was carried out using raw milk obtained from cow, and the lemon juice as coagulant. The results revealed
that after coagulation, the machine produced a soft cheese with an average cheese formation time of 7.19
minutes, whereas, the local method used to take up to 20 minutes. The nutritional values of the cheese were
analyzed and results showed an average value of fat (13.98%), crude protein (12.72%), carbohydrate
(22.82%), moisture (50.03%), ash (0.91%), calcium (43.20mg/100g) and potassium (55.43 mg/100g). The
nutritional values of the cheese produced with the machine and a locally produced cheese were compared
and the results showed that values of fat, protein and carbohydrate, potassium and calcium of the machine
produced cheese increased by 9.01%, 21.34%, 20.68%, 32.55% and 8.31% respectively. However, from
positive perspective, the moisture and ash contents decreased by 14.52% and 9.90% respectively. The test of
significance showed that there were significant differences in the values obtained at P<0.05 except for fat
(0.059) and ash (0.217).